Banana Farming

Banana Farming

Banana Farming

 Introduction: 

                    Banana (Musa sp.) is a large perennial herb with leaf sheaths that form trunk like pseudostem. Banana has its origin in tropical region of South East Asia. Banana is a nutritious gold mine. They are high in vitamin B6, which helps fight infection and is essential for the synthesis of heme, the iron containing part of hemoglobin. They are also rich in potassium and are a great source of fibre. In recent years, considering the adverse impact of indiscriminate use of chemicals, new trend for organic production of banana is increasing in the country. A new name, i.e. "Green Foods" for this has been coined. 

                  Growing bananas does not require much effort but to achieve high yields requires skills, dedication, and proper planting methods. Below are some pertinent guides that any Banana growers should be aware of. The list is not exhaustive and certainly requires some adjustments depending on the variety of the Bananas.

Climate:

                                                 Bananas need warm subtropical climate, adequate moisture and protection from wind. Most varieties of Bananas grow best with 12 hours of bright light and high humidity of 50% or higher. The ideal temperature range is around 26-30°C (78-86F) with RH regime of 75-85%. Growth begins at 18ºC, reaches optimal growth at 27ºC and stop entirely when temperature reaches 38ºC. Although Bananas grow best in bright sunlight, high temperature will scorch leaves and fruit. For best appearance and higher photosynthetic rate, wind protection is advisable. High velocity wind which exceeds 80km per hour damages the leaf. Bananas are also vulnerable to being blown over due to the weight of the stem of fruit. Thus, Propping should be done during the last few months of its life cycle before harvest.

Soil :

           Bananas need rich, moisture and well-drained soil with 40% clay, 75% silt, 85% loam. Bananas prefer a more acidic soil with pH between 6-7.5. Low pH soil makes banana more susceptible to Panama disease. Avoid soil that is sandy, salty, nutritionally deficient and ill-drained soil. If soil is not in the most favorable condition, improve it! Light sandy soil can be improved by placing mulch around the Banana plants. This will improve water retention and prevent nutrients from percolating quickly into the soil. Nutritionally deficient soil can be improved by incorporating organic matter to the soil before you plant your Bananas and then mulch them thickly. This process should be repeated as often as possible. Bananas do not tolerate waterlogging because its roots will rot. This however can be resolved by planting the Bananas in raised beds.

 Varieties of Banana :

                                     there are diffrent varieties depending upon its time to cultivation are as follows

Bananas varieties	Weight (kg)			Planting to Flowering (months)		Flowering to Harvest (months)
	Suckers	Tissue Culture	Optimal	Suckers	Tissue Culture
Dessert
Berangan	10 – 15	12 – 18	25 – 36	10 – 12	7 – 8	11 – 12
Cavendish (Novaria)	-	20 – 25	30 – 40	10 – 12	6 – 7	10 – 12
Cavendish (Montel)	-	20 – 25	30 – 40	10 – 12	6 – 7	10 – 12
Emas	8 – 10	8 – 10	10 – 15	8 – 10	6 – 7	7 – 8
Embun	14 – 25	20 – 25	30 – 40	10 – 12	6 – 7	10 – 12
Rastali	10 – 14	12 – 18	20 – 30	10 – 12	7 – 8	11 – 12
Raja	12 – 16	12 – 18	20 – 30	-	7 – 8	11 – 12
For cooking
Abu	15 – 22	15 – 28	30 – 40	7 – 9	12 – 14	14 – 16
Awak	18 – 22	18 – 22	20 – 25	7 – 9	7 – 8	11 – 12
Gading	15 – 20	15 – 20	20 – 25	7 – 9	7 – 8	11 – 12
Nangka	15 – 20	15 – 25	25 – 30	7 – 9	7 – 8	11 – 12
Tanduk	7 – 10	7 – 12	-	7 – 9	7 – 8	11 – 12

 Planting :

Planting Material :

The best way is to start with tissue culture plantlets. Tissue culture plantlets are recommended for planting because suckers, in general, are infected with some soil-borne pathogen and nematodes.
Tissue culture plantlets are healthy, pest and disease free, uniform and shorter harvesting period. Suckers on the contrary are not uniform and have a rather longer-harvesting period thus management of the plantation can be somewhat wearisome.

Planting Time :

                        Tissue culture Bananas can be planted throughout the year.

Nutrients Required By Bananas :

                                                        Bananas need nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium with a ratio of 3:1:6 and other micronutrients to ensure the plants grow vigorously.

Crop Geometry :

                             The most economical and efficient spacing is 1.82m x 1.52m with 3,630 plants per hectare (a wide spacing of 1.82 m between rows). The diagram below provides a good indication of how the plants should be planted: -

However, the above spacing is only possible with fertigation. Bananas can be planted with higher density at 1.5m x 1.5 m but yields are poor due to competition for sunlight. The recommended spacing is at 2.0m x 2.5m with 2,000 plants per hectare since that is the standard distance to minimize Sigatoka.

Planting Method :

                              20% of perlite should be mixed with the soil for optimal growth. Depending on the soil quality, one must apply the appropriate method as well as the depth and spacing at which plants are required to be planted.
Step 1: Mark the spots where the plants will be planted. Avoid marking and planting as you go because any oversight may lead to uneven spread of the Bananas. The best method to avoid this from happening is to use a long measuring tape.
Step 2: Dig a hole with a foot in diameter and ten (10) to twelve (12) inches deep and place the plants in the hole keeping the pseudo-stem 1 inch below the ground level.
Step 3: Toss a small amount of fertilizer into the hole to boost the growth of the plant and fill the hole with soil. Soil around the plant should be tramped down firmly to remove air pockets.

Intercropping :

Onion, soyabean and cowpea can be grown as intercrop in Banana by planting on raised bed which will give additional income. Growing intercrops like cowpea and soyabean also helps in suppressing weed growth. In preparation of model scheme, the income and expenditure for intercropping is not considered.

Manuring :

15 t of FYM/compost is applied at the time of land preparation. After plantation, the manuring is done by applying 5 kg FYM, 2 Kg Bhumilab, 20 g trichoderma and 30-50 ml humus per plant in first year and FYM @ 10 kg, Bhumilab @ 2.5 - 3 kg per plant during subsequent two years. The spraying of Gomutra (Cow urine) and Jeevamrut is also taken up. The jeevamrut is prepared by adding 10 kg cowdung, 5 l of cow urine, 2 kg black jaggery, 2 kg ground pulses powder, handful of bund soil in 200 l of water, the solution is kept for 2 to 7 days in shade for fermentation. During the fermentation, the solution is stirred on daily. Biofertilizers like Azatobacter(20 g/plant), Phosphate Solubilizing bacteria (PSB) (20 g/plant) and EM solution at the rate of 1 l per acre. The EM (Effective Microorganisms) solution is prepared by adding 1 l EM, 2 kg black jaggery, 50 g salt mixed in a drum of suitable size.

Irrigation :

The plants need to be irrigated immediately after planting. About 30-40 weekly irrigations are required. When summer temperature crosses 37.5 0C, irrigation on every 3rd day is essential. Inadequate irrigation to banana leads to delayed flowering, irregular bunch size, delayed maturity, reduced fingers and poor keeping quality of the fruits. The drip system of irrigation is being followed in most of the organic banana cultivation in Maharashtra. In this model scheme, the cost of installation of drip is not considered.

Interculture operations :

  Propping :

                    Propping or supporting the bearing plants can be done by suitable propping material like bamboo or wooden poles.

   
Mulching :

                   Mulching is desirable immediately after planting. Mulching controls weed growth, conserves moisture, hastens growth and improves yield.

   
Desuckering :

                        All varieties of banana throw suckers from 2-3 months after planting. All these suckers should not be allowed to grow as they will compete with the mother plants for water and nutrients thereby reducing the yield of main crop. Desuckering with sickle at 15-20 days interval right from the beginning till flowering is essential. Wrapping the bunches is essential to have blemish / bruise free fruits with uniform size and quality. For this, black coloured polythene may be used for covering the fruits

Other operations :

Weeding is done 3-4 times in a year. Trashing is done by removing dried leaves. Earthing up of the soil is required to be carried out two times annually

  Plant Protection :

The major pests and diseases observed in banana crop are rhizome weevil, nematodes, bunchy top, leaf spot, etc. In the case of organic farming, dasparni arka and neem cake are used to control pests and diseases. The dasparni arka, which means mixture of leaves of ten kinds of plants (das=ten, parna=leaf, arka=concentrated form of solution) is prepared by adding 25 kg neem leaves and 2 kg leaves each of custard apple, nirgudi, kaner, cotton, papaya, castor, karanj, gudwel, drumstick in 200 l of water, 5 to 10 l of gomutra & 2 kg of green chillies, the solution is kept for 15-20 days for fermentation. The stock solution is prepared by filtration through muslin cloth. The spraying is done by diluting the arka further by adding 100 l of water to 2.5 l of the arka.

 

Harvesting :

The crop gets ready for harvest after 11-12 months of planting. First ratoon crop is ready after 8-10 months from harvesting the main crop and second ratoon after 8 months of harvesting of the first ratoon crop. Thus over the period of 27-30 months, it is possible to harvest three crops i.e. one main crop and two ratoon crops.

 

Yield :

           With the conservative estimate, it is expected that at least 80% of the plants would produce bunches of banana. Accordingly, the yield/ha is estimated as under :-  

 

Pomegranate Farming

                              Pomegranate Farming in India

Pomegranate (Punica granatum)

Pomegranate Farming

 is an ancient favorite table fruit of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.  The fruit is symbolic of plenty and very much liked for its cool, refreshing juice and valued for its medicinal properties.  It retains its flavor and as such can keep well for over a year if it is properly filtered, bottled and preserved by using 0.1 per cent sodium benzoate.  The juice of pomegranate is believed to be good for leprosy patients.  The grains of the fruit are also eaten fresh in most of the hot countries and are used as condiment.  The bark and rind of the fruits are commonly used in dysentery and diarrhea.  The rind is also used as dying material for cloth.  Dried seeds of pomegranate seeds with pulp are available as ‘Anardana’.
The tree produces attractive red flowers and is very commonly grown as an ornamental plant also.
The versatile adaptability, hardy, nature, low maintenance cost, steady but high yields, better keeping quality, fine table and therapeutic values and possibilities to throw the plant into rest period when irrigation potential is generally low, indicate the avenues for increasing the area under pomegranate in India.
Production Areas:
                               As a commercial crop pomegranate is grown to a limited extent in selected locations in many states.  The estimated area under pomegranate in India is about 25000 ha. with Maharashtra accounting for more than two third area, while other states like AP, UP, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu share the rest.
Climate  :
                  Pomegranate prefers dry climate. During fruit development, prolonged hot and dry climate is required. Optimum temperature congenial for fruit development is 38 degree C. In humid climate the fruits are severely damaged by pomegranate butterfly and do not develop sweetness. It is winter hardy and very drought tolerant. It can grow up to an elevation of 1850 meters.
Soil  :
            It grows under wide variety of soils and can tolerate even alkalinity and salinity to certain extent.  However, best results are obtained in deep heavy loam and well drained soils.  It is sensitive to soil moisture fluctuations causing fruit cracking which is a serious problem of this crop.
Varieties and Propagation :
                                              In recent years  several new varieties have been developed and new orchards have come with well-known improved varieties.

• Bhagwa : The ‘Bhagawa’ variety of pomegranate presently under commercial cultivation known by different names viz. ‘Shendari’, ‘Ashtagandha’, ‘Mastani’, ‘Jai Maharashtra’, and ‘Red Daina’ in various districts of  Maharashtra such as Solapur, Nashik, Sangli, Satara, Ahemadnagar, Pune and Dhule districts has been recommended for its cultivation by the Mahatma Phule Agriculture University, Rahuri. Extensive survey work on pomegranate orchards indicated that the ‘Bhagawa’  variety of pomegranate is heavy yielder and possesses desirable fruit characters. This variety matures in 180-190 days with average yield of 30.38 kg  fruits/tree. Bigger fruit size, sweet, bold and attractive arils, glossy, very attractive saffron coloured thick skin makes it suitable for distant markets. This variety was found less susceptible to fruit spots and thrips as compared to other varieties of pomegranate. Considering all these attributes, the ‘Bhagawa’ variety is recommended for its cultivation in pomegranate growing in regions of Maharashtra

                   

• .Ganesh  : This is a selection from ‘Alandi’ developed by Dr. Cheema at Pune which has revolutionized cultivation of pomegranate in Maharashtra state.  This has soft seeds and pinkish flesh with juice of agreeable taste and bears heavily.

•   Phule Arakta : The ‘Arakta’  variety of pomegranate presently under commercial cultivation in various regions of Maharashtra. Pre-released in the year 1989, It has now been released as ‘Phule Arakta’ for its cultivation by the Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri.  The ‘Phule Arakta’ variety of pomegranate is heavy yielder and possesses desirable fruit   characters. The fruits are bigger in size, sweet with soft seeds, bold red arils. It also possess glossy, attractive, dark red skin. It is less susceptible to fruit spots and thrips. Hence, the ‘Phule Arakta’ variety is released for the cultivation in pomegranate growing areas of Maharashtra

• Mrudula : This variety has all the characters of the Ganesh variety except the arils are dark red in colour. The colour of the arils in 'Ambe' bahar and 'Mrig' bahar is dark red in colour while it is pink during the 'Hasta' bahar. The average fruit weight is 250-300 grams.
• Dholka  : Popular variety of Gujarat with fruits of large size, rind greenish yellow, flesh aril pinkish white seeds soft, juice acidic.  It is a medium cropper.

• Jodhpur Local  : Medium sized fruit with hard rind, fleshy aril light pink, sweet, juicy, seed moderately hard.

• Seedless (Bedana)  :  Fruit medium to large in size, rind brownish green, fleshy aril light pink or whitish, very sweet, very juicy, soft seeded.  ‘Bassein seedless & KVK – 1’ are from Karnataka  and ‘Jalore Selection’ are popular names in north India.  In South India, ‘Paper Shell’, ‘Spanish Ruby’, ‘Muscat Red’ & ‘Velladu’ have shown promise.

Vegetative propagation is recommended in establishing pomegranate.  Propagation by cuttings is common.  Cuttings should be taken from suckers which spring from the base of the main stem and should be mature about 20 to 30 cm long and 6-12 mm thick.  Rainy season is the best period to achieve maximum success.

Cultural Practice  :
                                Planting distance would depend on soil type and climate.  Old orchards were planted at 3 to 6 m space.  Nowadays with new dwarf varieties a spacing of 4 x 4 m is recommended which accommodates 625 plants/ha.
Training & Pruning  : Multi stem training is more prevalent and useful also because due to some reason even if the plant losses one stem it contains others to survive.
Pomegranate fruits are borne terminally on short spurs arising from mature shoots.  These bear fruits for 3 to 4 years.  Only limited pruning of trees are required.  The gradual  growth of new shoots should be encouraged by restricted cutting back of bearing
shoots.  Suckers are removed regularly.
Orchard Management  :  During gestation period which is normally 3 to 4 years for improved varieties, growing pulses & green manure crops are recommended only during rainy season.

Flower regulation :  In subtropics, pomegranate flowers in spring while in tropics (Central and South India), it flowers in three distinct phases with maximum intensity in rainy season.  Spring flowers (Ambe-bahar) give fruits in summer when the demand is maximum but of poor quality.  Therefore, efforts should be directed to avail of rainy flowers (Mrig-bahar) so that fruiting period coincides with the time of maximum water availability in the soil and the crop is taken without irrigation.  For Mrig bahar treatment results in sufficient suppression of growth.  Trees usually shed leaves by March and remain dormant upto May.  Then the field is ploughed, manure and fertilizers are applied and first light irrigation is given in the middle of May and thereafter one or two light irrigation are given until rains set in.  The trees put up new growth, flower and fruit with crop availability in October-November.  This is the most advisable approach in arid and semi-arid regions with limited resources.
Nutrition  : The recommended doses of manures of fertilizers for Ganesh variety in Maharashtra is 25 kg of FYM, 500 g N, 125 g P2O & 125 g. K2) per plant per year for 4 to 6 year old plants.  Time of application will vary with the crop.  For Ambe baharDecember/January, for Mrig bahar May/June and for Haste Bahar October/November are appropriate periods.
Irrigation may be given depending on soil, climate and availability of water.
Pests & Diseases  :  Pomegranate butterfly and bark eating caterpillar are the common pests of Pomegranate.
The fruits are susceptible to fruit fly which needs to be controlled from flowering to button stage.  At this stage spray of sevin (carbaryl) 0.2% (200 gm/100 litre) or endosuplhan 0.05% at 10 days interval alternatively, must be given.
Fruit spot and fruit rot are the common fungal diseases for which proper and regular spraying are made.
Physiological disorder : Fruit cracking is a most serious physiological disorder in pomegranate which limits its cultivation.  In young fruits it could be due to boron deficiency but fully grown fruits crack due to moisture imbalances as there are very sensitive to variations in soil moisture and humidity.  Prolonged drought causes hardening of peel and if this is followed by heavy irrigation or down pour then the pulp grows and the peel cracks.  This problem can be overcome by
a)      Maintaining soil moisture and not allowing wide variations in soil moisture depletion,
b)      Cultivation of tolerant varieties,
c)      Early harvesting not allowing the fruits to crack and
d)      Spray of calcium hydroxide on leaves and on fruit set.

Harvesting, Yield and Marketing  :
                                                            Normally, pomegranate flowers take 5 to 6 months to be ready as mature fruits.  They should be harvested mature which can be judged by change in skin colour to slightly yellow and metallic sound when tapped.  A grown up well kept tree should give about 100 to 150 fruits per year.  A high density system with ‘Ganesh’ 1000 plant/ha (5x2m) has been found very profitable giving a crop of 50 fruits/tree of good quality.
After harvesting, fruits can be cured in shade for about a week so that the skin becomes hard and fruits can stand transportation better.  Thereafter, the fruits can be graded according to weight
            ‘A’ grade         -           350 g & above
            ‘B’ grade          -           200 to 350 g & above
            ‘C’ grade         -           Less than 200 g.
Cured fruits have good keeping quality which can further be prolonged through cold storage.  When stored at 00C to 4.50C with 80%.  Relative Humidity fruit remain safe even for seven months.

Cotton Farming

  Cotton Farming              

 In India cotton is harvested in many states. now a days mostly used variety in cotton seed is B.TWhich is giving very good result instead of Nanded variety. B.T. variety is giving from 10 quintel per acre to 25 quintel with irrigation but with that its have some disadvantages. this variety have less resistance power so, it require more care upto complete harvesting. and  every year lot many sub varieties are coming in market. basically this variety is in irrigation so it give average in irrigation only 

          
  B.T. Cotton

         In recent days BT cotton has hot topic for all agriculture camminities and also amang policy makers,social activities. BT cotton is generally engineered by natural cotton.The main advantage of utilizing biotechnology in agriculture are the possibilities of increase in productivity through the use of newer veriety that passes properties such that resistance to pest,dieseses, and other stressfull condition like salinity or water logging. 

              B.T. cotton is produce by inserting a synthetic version of gene from the natural occurring soil bacterium bacillus thuringiensis, into cotton.The primary reason this is done is to induce the plant to produce its own Bt toxin to destroy the bollworm, a major cotton pest. The gene causes the production of Bt toxin in all parts of the cotton plant throughout its entire life span. When the bollworm ingests any part of the plant, the Bt cotton toxin pierces its small intestine and kills the insect.

Why it comes in India

              Although India has the world’s largest acreage of 8.9 million hectares representing about one quarter of the global area (35 million ha) under cotton cultivation, the average yield of cotton is 440Kg/ha, which is far below the world average of 677 Kg/ha. The production is also only 16% (4.13 million tonnes) of the world production of 26.19 million tonnes. Main cause for this reduced production is the 162 species of insects, which are known to devour cotton at various stages of growth, of which 15 are considered to be key pests.

             Among the insects, cotton bollworms are the most serious pests in India causing an annual loss of at least US$300 million. Together these pests and diseases result in an estimated loss of 50% to 60%of potential yield. Farmers therefore use a cocktail of expensive chemical pesticides to control pest infestation. Currently pesticides account for one-third of total cultivation costs. In India, an estimated US$ 660 million (Rs 29 billion) worth of pesticides is used in agriculture, of which US$ 344 million (Rs 16 billion) is used on cotton.

               Bollworm alone takes a heavy toll, costing the farmers an annual US$ 235 million (Rs 11 billion). This accounts for more than a third of current pesticides sales in India. So to mitigate this yield loss incorporating insect resistance has become the prime objective of cotton improvement efforts in India. But painfully no bollworm resistance is available in the germplasm. Thus the efforts got diverted to harness genetic engineering technology for bollworm resistance in India in 1990s with the import of genetically modified (GM) cotton and initiation of research programmes in national laboratories.

Farmer Need To Support of Government

                      

                    Farmer Need To Support of Government 

  Cultivation of crop is not very easy business because it gives less profit if small mistake is done. to understand the process of cultivation is very simple but for apply it is quite difficult because it requires physically and mentally active any time 

               In India climate is not quite constant means may be in winter rainfall is done. but crop required a specific climate depending upon its type. because of technology is not that much develop in India so that control the climate like Green house, poly house farmers get loss in cultivation of crop means that they don't get the profit and may be their cost required for the cultivation is not recover.

                The farmer who have 1 acre and the farmer who have 100 acre,  both required same cost per acre for cultivation. means farmer who have 1 acre required 10,000 Rs and farmer who have 100 acres required 100,00,00 Rs and if they get profit 2000 per acre then condition of both farmers are same ultimately, 

                Now we think about the crop loan. if farmer get loss in cultivation he get the crop loan on farm for cultivation of crop for next year and if in that year also farmer get loss then he will felt to deposit the cash in bank of the loan actually there are many reason behind in loss which are 

•  lack of technology
• sudden change in climate
• lack of money to take care of crop
• lack of information of cultivation
• lack of guidlines from agriculture officer

                 But Government of India only deposit their crop loan to stop the suicide of farmers but instead of that if government start the training campaign to get knowledge about different scheme and new technology  with that by this campaign farmers get confidence about different experiments on crop with that they can increase their harvest also. then i think automatically suicide of formers will reduce and one day it will stop and with that obviously it will growth of nation   

Indian agriculture

my friends as we know today India is developing country in the world. Today so many technologies are affecting on the market. as increasing population,peoples demands also increasing inspite basic needs. so obviously complete world is concentrating on the Indian market
                    But In India mostly peoples are survive on the farming which is base of any country and that base should be strong. this is the country which have three seasons summer,winter and rainy and farmers can cultivate the crops two times in year which is kharip and rabi
                 If we focus on farming in Maharashtra state in India then we can see lot many crops are cultivated in kharip and rabi season which are complete the demand of state and country.
                  List of crop cultivated in Maharashtra is as follow

•   Blackgram
•   chick pea
•  gram
•  wheat
•  rice
•  green gram
•  cotton
• soyabean
• graundnut
• maize
• red gram
• orrange
• vagetables
• sugarcane

Maharashtra state have different regions like vidarbha, marathwada, kokan, khandesh which have different crop cultivation depending upon climate and soil variety. farmers are mostly use the traditional method of cultivation. now a days some technologies also involve in cultivation method like using tractors,drip and sprinkler irrigation.
               But although there is some limitations because of economical condition of farmers and mostly farmers don't have correct guidelines about different scheme of government of India and government of Maharashtra. If we focus variety of crops cultivated in different regions of only in Maharashtra state in India depending on variety of soil and climate then we can see lot much variety of crops in two seasons to be cultivate.
             The climate in Maharashtra is varied from 15 to 45 degree celsius and types of soil is as follows

1) Red soils

Red soils have two broad classes:

a) Red loam with cloddy structure and allow content of concretionary materials; and
b) Red earths with loose, Permeable top soil and a high content of secondary concretions. Generally these soils are light textured with porous and friable structure and there is absence of lime Kankar and free carbonates. They have neutral to acidic reaction and are deficient in nitrogen humus, phosphoric acid and lime.

2) Laterites and Lateritic soils

These soils are red to reddish yellow in colour and low in N, P, K, lime and magnesia. These soils are formed in-situ under conditions of high rainfall with alternation dry and wet periods. On account of heavy rainfall there is an excessive leaching of soil colloids and silica hence the soils are porous.

3) Black soils 

These are mostly clay soils and form deep cracks during dry season. An accumulation of lime is generally noticed of varying depths. They are popularly known as “Black cotton soils” because of their dark brown colour and suitability for growing cotton. These are also known as Indian regurs.These soils are deficient in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and organic matter but rich in calcium, potash and magnesium. 

In spite of that some other types of soil can be seen in India which is as follows

4) Alluvial soils

These soils occur along rivers and represent the soil materials that have been deposited by the rivers duing flood. Usually they are very productive soils but many are deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus.

5) Forest and hill soils

These soils occur at high elevations as well as at low elevations, where the rainfall is sufficient to support trees. These soils are very shallow, steep, stony, and infertile for the production of field crops. However, they serve a very useful purpose by supplying forest product such as timber and fuel.

6) Desert soils

These are mostly sandy soils that occur in the low rainfall track. They are well supplied with soluble salts but are low in nitrogen and organic matter and have a high pH value. These are quite productive. These are often subjected to wind erosion.

7) Saline & Alkaline soils

These soils occur in areas having a little more rainfall than the areas of desert soils. They show white incrustation of salts of calcium & Magne sium and sodium on the surface. These are poor in drainage and are infertile.

8) Peaty and Marshy soils

These types of soils are found in Kerala, coastal track of Orissa, Sunderban area of W.B. When the vegetation growing in such wet places dies, it decomposes very slowly dues to excessive wetness of soils and after several hundreds of year a layer of partly decayed organic matter accumulates on the surface, giving rise to such peaty and marshy soils. These are black coloured, heavy and highly acidic soils. When properly drained and fertilized, these soils produce good crops of rice.

         now some sites of government of India and government of Maharashtra are as follows 

•     www.nhm.nic.in
•    www.mahaagri.gov.in
•    www.mahaethibak.gov.in